Morris, M. W., Leung, K., & Iyengar, S. S. (2004). Person perception in the heat of conflict: Negative trait attributions affect procedural preferences and account for situational and cultural differences. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 7(2), 127-147.
Models of person perception posit two stages in making sense of a person, identifying their behavior on some dimension and attributing it to a cause (Gilbert et al, 1988).
http://www.columbia.edu/~ss957/articles/Person_Perception.pdf
17 Ocak 2015 Cumartesi
Page 1
Gender stereotypes, gender inequality, under-representation of women in important life domains.
Despite the important social, political and economic movements that lead to women's (and other sexual minorities') empowerment, gender discrimination and inequalities is a universal problem which exists everywhere in the world when we are nearing the 21st century. Think about the prevalence of domestic violence against women, systematic sexual abuse and rape of the military, the masculinization of science, politics and the state, the feminization of poverty, unfair treatment of women by law, or the persistence wage gap between men and women...These and many more that I have not been mentioned here are all social and cultural systems that are associated with the blatant side of sexism.
Yet, in our everyday lives we are affected by a different kind of sexism. It is the subtle kind of sexism, which is "a cluster of social expectations and practices that reinforce sex-based inequality." (Rhode, 2007, p., 613 in "the Subtle Side of Sexism"). Much research points to the pernicious consequences of subtle sexism, because of its unnoticed and undetectable nature unlike blatant or overt sexism. Drawing on feminist understandings of subtle sexism, Peel (2001) talks about subtle heterosexism, which is as difficult to understand and challenge as subtle sexism, because heterocentric assumptions are an integral and normative part of our social life ("mundane heterosexism").
Cultural norms and adaptations develop because of their functionality, and they get sustained long after their functionality has become obsolete and the conditions that gave rise to them are gone.
There are a number of explanations to what may contribute to the persistence of sexism in everyday life (e.g., use of sexist language). For instance, it is argued that social control of religion and state patriarchy lead to the maintanence of gender inequality norms. In this chapter, we are going to focus on the cultural norms around honour as one of the perpetuators of sexism and heterosexism, and we are going to discuss how honour norms surrounding men and women are related to subtle sexism and gender stereotypes.
Definition of Honour and Dishonor
- a universal concept
- but its importance varies dramatically among cultures -- Where in the world is honour is a more salient social construction? honour cultures -- can also talk about some evolutionary accounts here.
Shame as a reaction to loss of honour and Anger as a reaction to broken honor
A vast amount of empirical research on honour has shown that honour is about building and maintaining reputation in one's immediate groups or in society. And that the costs of not abiding by the honour codes are large, including strong emotional reactions of shame and anger. The person who violates the honour code feels a strong sense of shame, and those whose honour is broken/threatened may react with strong sense of anger.
Gender-specific honour codes - Masculine and Feminine Honour
In the last half century, social psychological, anthropological and historical literature has documented that honour codes manifest themselves in gendered terms (Peristiany, Gilmour, etc.). That is, being honorable (having esteem, respect, prestige, and moral reputation) requires men and women to achieve their gender-specific goals. As such, "honor" can be thought of as a strong but subtle cultural force which leads men and women to maintain their masculinity and femininity by socially rewarding them for doing so, and thus makes gender stereotypes, sexism and heterosexism more resistant to be challenged and changed.
Cross-cultural research comparing individuals from honour vs. non-honour cultures has shown that Spanish participants showed more traditional sex-role attitudes with regards to marriage and sexuality than Dutch participants (Rodriguez-Mosquera, 1999). Researchers also demonstrated that honour beliefs are linked to sexual objectification, ambivalent sexism, and domestic violence against women and legitimization of male violence.
Research has shown that people who strongly believe in honor norms (i.e., people from an honour culture - Spanish people) also behave more in line with t
honour norms are linked with sexual objectification, a support for patriarchy, and legitimization of violence against women
That is, some codes of honor are more appropriate to men, whereas others are more appropriate to women. These are called as masculine and feminine honor, respectively. Masculine honour codes are associated with attributes like virility, prowess, assertiveness, dominance, and protection of the family, whereas feminine honour codes entail attributes like modesty, sexual shame, chastity, submission, and loyalty to men and family (construed as more passive rather than aggressive) (Rodriguez, 1999). These gender-specific honour codes closely represent the stereotypical image and characteristics of men and women.
Cross-cultural research showed that men and women in honour cultures tend to behave in line with their gender-specific honour codes more than those in non-honour cultures, especially in the domains of family and sexuality (e.g., Rodriguez Mosquera et al., 2002; Vandello & Cohen, 2003; Vandello et al., 2009)
There are a set of attributes which men and women have to follow separately to gain their much needed social and moral reputation. These are referred to as feminine and masculine honour in the literature. In the ethonographic (descriptive) research, masculine honour codes are associated with attributes like virility, prowess, assertiveness, dominance, and protection of the family, whereas feminine honour codes entail attributes like modesty, sexual shame, chastity, submission, and loyalty to men and family (construed as more passive rather than aggressive) (Rodriguez, 1999). REF? WHERE DOES IT SAY THAT MASC AND FEM HONOR HAVE THESE ATTRIBUTES - READ THAT SOURCE!
Even though considerable number of studies have been built on the distinction of the masculine and feminine honor ideals and how it affects women and especially men's behavior, findings of empirical research has been inconclusive. In her cross-cultural study with the Spanish (those from an honor culture) and Dutch participants (those from a non-honor culture), Rodriguez-Mosquera (2011) found that both Spanish and Dutch participants rated masculine honor attributes as more desirable for men, and feminine honor attributes as more desirable for women. However, it would be premature to conclude that people's preferences of masculine and feminine honor codes do not vary cross-culturally, as peoples' preferences do not always reflect their actual behaviors,
Previous research showed that men and women in honour cultures tend to behave in line with their gender-specific honour codes more than those in non-honour cultures, especially in the domains of family and sexuality (e.g., Rodriguez Mosquera et al., 2002; Vandello & Cohen, 2003; Vandello et al., 2009).
why gender stereotypes, subtle sexism and heterosexism may be resistant to change due to the strong force of honour norms entrenched in the culture
Introduction of my studies
""
Despite the important social, political and economic movements that lead to women's (and other sexual minorities') empowerment, gender discrimination and inequalities is a universal problem which exists everywhere in the world when we are nearing the 21st century. Think about the prevalence of domestic violence against women, systematic sexual abuse and rape of the military, the masculinization of science, politics and the state, the feminization of poverty, unfair treatment of women by law, or the persistence wage gap between men and women...These and many more that I have not been mentioned here are all social and cultural systems that are associated with the blatant side of sexism.
Yet, in our everyday lives we are affected by a different kind of sexism. It is the subtle kind of sexism, which is "a cluster of social expectations and practices that reinforce sex-based inequality." (Rhode, 2007, p., 613 in "the Subtle Side of Sexism"). Much research points to the pernicious consequences of subtle sexism, because of its unnoticed and undetectable nature unlike blatant or overt sexism. Drawing on feminist understandings of subtle sexism, Peel (2001) talks about subtle heterosexism, which is as difficult to understand and challenge as subtle sexism, because heterocentric assumptions are an integral and normative part of our social life ("mundane heterosexism").
There are a number of explanations to what may contribute to the persistence of sexism in everyday life (e.g., use of sexist language). For instance, it is argued that social control of religion and state patriarchy lead to the maintanence of gender inequality norms. In this chapter, we are going to focus on the cultural norms around honour as one of the perpetuators of sexism and heterosexism, and we are going to discuss how honour norms surrounding men and women are related to subtle sexism and gender stereotypes.
Definition of Honour and Dishonor
- a universal concept
- but its importance varies dramatically among cultures -- Where in the world is honour is a more salient social construction? honour cultures -- can also talk about some evolutionary accounts here.
Shame as a reaction to loss of honour and Anger as a reaction to broken honor
A vast amount of empirical research on honour has shown that honour is about building and maintaining reputation in one's immediate groups or in society. And that the costs of not abiding by the honour codes are large, including strong emotional reactions of shame and anger. The person who violates the honour code feels a strong sense of shame, and those whose honour is broken/threatened may react with strong sense of anger.
Gender-specific honour codes - Masculine and Feminine Honour
In the last half century, social psychological, anthropological and historical literature has documented that honour codes manifest themselves in gendered terms (Peristiany, Gilmour, etc.). That is, being honorable (having esteem, respect, prestige, and moral reputation) requires men and women to achieve their gender-specific goals. As such, "honor" can be thought of as a strong but subtle cultural force which leads men and women to maintain their masculinity and femininity by socially rewarding them for doing so, and thus makes gender stereotypes, sexism and heterosexism more resistant to be challenged and changed.
Cross-cultural research comparing individuals from honour vs. non-honour cultures has shown that Spanish participants showed more traditional sex-role attitudes with regards to marriage and sexuality than Dutch participants (Rodriguez-Mosquera, 1999). Researchers also demonstrated that honour beliefs are linked to sexual objectification, ambivalent sexism, and domestic violence against women and legitimization of male violence.
Research has shown that people who strongly believe in honor norms (i.e., people from an honour culture - Spanish people) also behave more in line with t
honour norms are linked with sexual objectification, a support for patriarchy, and legitimization of violence against women
That is, some codes of honor are more appropriate to men, whereas others are more appropriate to women. These are called as masculine and feminine honor, respectively. Masculine honour codes are associated with attributes like virility, prowess, assertiveness, dominance, and protection of the family, whereas feminine honour codes entail attributes like modesty, sexual shame, chastity, submission, and loyalty to men and family (construed as more passive rather than aggressive) (Rodriguez, 1999). These gender-specific honour codes closely represent the stereotypical image and characteristics of men and women.
Cross-cultural research showed that men and women in honour cultures tend to behave in line with their gender-specific honour codes more than those in non-honour cultures, especially in the domains of family and sexuality (e.g., Rodriguez Mosquera et al., 2002; Vandello & Cohen, 2003; Vandello et al., 2009)
There are a set of attributes which men and women have to follow separately to gain their much needed social and moral reputation. These are referred to as feminine and masculine honour in the literature. In the ethonographic (descriptive) research, masculine honour codes are associated with attributes like virility, prowess, assertiveness, dominance, and protection of the family, whereas feminine honour codes entail attributes like modesty, sexual shame, chastity, submission, and loyalty to men and family (construed as more passive rather than aggressive) (Rodriguez, 1999). REF? WHERE DOES IT SAY THAT MASC AND FEM HONOR HAVE THESE ATTRIBUTES - READ THAT SOURCE!
Even though considerable number of studies have been built on the distinction of the masculine and feminine honor ideals and how it affects women and especially men's behavior, findings of empirical research has been inconclusive. In her cross-cultural study with the Spanish (those from an honor culture) and Dutch participants (those from a non-honor culture), Rodriguez-Mosquera (2011) found that both Spanish and Dutch participants rated masculine honor attributes as more desirable for men, and feminine honor attributes as more desirable for women. However, it would be premature to conclude that people's preferences of masculine and feminine honor codes do not vary cross-culturally, as peoples' preferences do not always reflect their actual behaviors,
Previous research showed that men and women in honour cultures tend to behave in line with their gender-specific honour codes more than those in non-honour cultures, especially in the domains of family and sexuality (e.g., Rodriguez Mosquera et al., 2002; Vandello & Cohen, 2003; Vandello et al., 2009).
why gender stereotypes, subtle sexism and heterosexism may be resistant to change due to the strong force of honour norms entrenched in the culture
Introduction of my studies
""
Literature Review - Abstracts or Excerpts from Articles
Mosquera, P. M. R. (2011). “Masculine and
feminine honor codes.” Revista De Psicologia Social 26(1): 63-72.
ABSTRACT:
We present a study on the importance of masculine and feminine honor and attitudes towards sex roles in Spain and the Netherlands. Honor is more important in Spanish than in Dutch culture. Participants were asked to rate the extent to which gender-neutral (e.g., caring for reputation) and gendered (e.g., assertiveness, modesty) honor attributes were desirable in their culture for each sex. We also measured attitudes towards sex-roles in different domains (e.g., work, marriage). The Spanish participants rated gender-neutral honor attributes as more desirable than the Dutch participants did. Both Spanish and Dutch participants rated masculine honor attributes as more desirable for men, and feminine honor attributes as more desirable for women. Participant’s sex emerged as the most important predictor of attitudes towards sex roles, with males expressing more traditional attitudes than females. Taken together, the results indicate that masculine and feminine honor are expressions of pan-cultural ideals of masculinity and femininity.
Saucier, D. A., Till, D. F., Miller, S. S.,
O'Dea, C. J., & Andres, E. (2014). Slurs against masculinity: masculine
honor beliefs and men's reactions to slurs. Language
Sciences.
ABSTRACT:
We examined the manifestation and effects of slurs against men and masculinity. In Study 1, we created a taxonomy of slurs against men and masculinity. In Study 2, we established that men may respond with physical aggression when targeted by these slurs. In Study 3, we demonstrated that slurs in different categories of our taxonomy produce varying levels of perceived offensiveness and likelihoods of aggressive responses. Finally, in Study 4, we showed that men’s masculine honor beliefs are associated with their perceptions of slurs as offensive and the ratings of their likelihood of responding physically, especially for slurs that directly challenge their masculinity. These findings extend the extant literature that has examined the content of and reactions to slurs and physically aggressive responses to provocation, as well as that which has examined conceptualizations of masculine honor from both cultural and individual difference perspectives.
General Discussion (page 11)
Our results are consistent with previous
research that has examined how men respond to challenges to their
heterosexuality. Previous research has shown that men report
that homophobic slurs are among the “worst things” that men may call other men (Preston and Stanley,1987),
and that heterosexual men seek to actively maintain gender identities that
serve to distance themselves from gay men (Falomir-Pichastor
and Mugny, 2009). Men perceive homophobic slurs negatively, and may take measures to highlight their
heterosexuality even upon exposure to these slurs – even when not directly targeted
by them (Carnaghi et al., 2011). Men similarly
may respond negatively toward gay men to assert their heterosexuality in an attempt to compensate for feedback that their
levels of masculinity were lower than the average of men nationally (Talley and Bettencourt, 2008). Our findings confirm these
conclusions from the literature by showing that homophobic slurs, as well as other slurs that threaten masculinity, are
perceived as particularly offensive by men. But our studies extend this extant research by innovatively demonstrating how
men’s reactions to challenged
masculinity are related to their masculine honor beliefs.
General Discussion (page 12)
Across four studies, we gathered and reported compelling data that contribute to the understanding of how men perceive and respond to being targeted by slurs, especially those that challenge or disparage their masculinity. We identified a taxonomy of slurs against men and masculinity that men report to be offensive that may be used to aid the design and communication of future research on slurs, insults, and provocation.We found that men report having fought when targeted by slurs against men and masculinity, and that they perceive slurs against their masculinity to be particularly offensive and report greater likelihoods of responding to these slurs physically. Finally, we found that men’s perceptions of and reactions to being targeted by slurs are associated with their adherence to masculine honor beliefs, with those relationships being stronger for the components of masculine honor related to pride in manhood, virtue in masculinity, and perceptions of provocation as threatening with slurs that directly challenge or disparage men’s masculinity. In summary, our research has demonstrated that slurs against men and masculinity may incite physically aggressive responses in men bound by the standards of masculine honor, highlighting the theoretical, practical, and societal importance of investigating and understanding “fighting words.”
General Discussion (page 12)
Across four studies, we gathered and reported compelling data that contribute to the understanding of how men perceive and respond to being targeted by slurs, especially those that challenge or disparage their masculinity. We identified a taxonomy of slurs against men and masculinity that men report to be offensive that may be used to aid the design and communication of future research on slurs, insults, and provocation.We found that men report having fought when targeted by slurs against men and masculinity, and that they perceive slurs against their masculinity to be particularly offensive and report greater likelihoods of responding to these slurs physically. Finally, we found that men’s perceptions of and reactions to being targeted by slurs are associated with their adherence to masculine honor beliefs, with those relationships being stronger for the components of masculine honor related to pride in manhood, virtue in masculinity, and perceptions of provocation as threatening with slurs that directly challenge or disparage men’s masculinity. In summary, our research has demonstrated that slurs against men and masculinity may incite physically aggressive responses in men bound by the standards of masculine honor, highlighting the theoretical, practical, and societal importance of investigating and understanding “fighting words.”
An open-ended DV looking at people's comments in their own words
Look at participants' open-ended answers to see how much they (men & women) make fun of the feminine men and the masculine woman.
Give the main study scenarios (Michael & Jessica), ask them to write what they think about these people in their own words.
Give the main study scenarios (Michael & Jessica), ask them to write what they think about these people in their own words.
Should I add one last question, to ask participants about what they think about Michael or Jessica? Just to explore their first impressions in their own words? I could then examine if there is any negative/positive trends in their answers looking for teasing or disparaging comments?
10 Ocak 2015 Cumartesi
honour, freedom of speech, islam
https://www.opendemocracy.net/transformation/jonathan-rowson/charlie-hebdo-is-nothing-sacred
On the one hand, freedom of speech is presented as something on which there can be no compromise. On the other there is a view of religious sanctity that believes that there are important limits to what can be said or shown without causing, not just 'offence', but a deep moral transgression—an existential threat to one's honour, identity and sense of being in the world.
On the one hand, freedom of speech is presented as something on which there can be no compromise. On the other there is a view of religious sanctity that believes that there are important limits to what can be said or shown without causing, not just 'offence', but a deep moral transgression—an existential threat to one's honour, identity and sense of being in the world.
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